Embalming in Roman Greece

From the paper:

Even earlier, during the Geometric Periods, there is some evidence to suggest that embalming was not unknown; it has long been recognised that the means by which the bodies of Homeric figures (Achilles, Sarpedon and Hektor) were preserved until their final disposal were, in fact, reminiscent of the art of the Egyptian embalmers (Garland, 2001). Another example is Alexander the Great (356 BC – 323 BC), whose was reported to be preserved in beeswax (Kurtz and Boardman, 1971; Aufderheide, 2003). The same applies for the Roman Period, where, although embalming was looked upon as a foreign custom and was, on the whole, not extensively practised, mummies embalmed according to the ancient Egyptian customs were sporadically discovered both in Italy and the provinces, e.g. the Empress Poppaea Sabina (30-65 AD) (Toynbee, 1971) and the mummy of Grottarossa (Ascenzi et al., 1996; Toynbee, 1971).

...

The current colour of the hair is brown with reddish highlights, a common observation on many mummies, and probably originated through post-mortem alteration (Aufderheide, 2003; Wilson et al., 2001). Sun-exposure, bacterial reaction, and embalming methods are some of the factors that may affect the original hair colour. As a result, hair that was originally black or brown exhibits reddish, orange or even blond colour due to post mortem alterations. All human hair, however, does not turn red over archaeological time-scales (Wilson, 2001). Based on the histological analysis of the unstained hair samples, the limited fungal influence, and the macroscopic view, it can be assumed that the original hair colour was brown. Similar cases of hair preservation have been reported in studies of both mummified and non-mummified human remains (Aufderheide, 2003; Brothwell and Dobney, 1986; Lubec et al., 1987; White, 1993; Wilson et al., 2002, 2007b).

Journal of Archaeological Science doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.07.003

Indications of embalming in Roman Greece by physical, chemical and histological analysis

C. Papageorgopoulou et al.

Abstract

The partially mummified remains of a high-status female (ca. 1700 BP, Thessaloniki, Greece) were found inside a Roman-type marble sarcophagus containing a lead coffin. The individual was positioned on a wooden pallet, wrapped in bandages, and covered with a gold-embroidered purple silk cloth. Besides the clothes, remnants of
soft tissue as well as the individual’s original hair style and eyebrows were exceptionally well preserved. In addition to the macroscopic examination, icroscopic
and biochemical analyses were undertaken. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) were applied to examine the tissue preservation and probable mechanisms of mummification. The presence of chemical components, such as sesquiterpenes,
triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, originating from coniferous and pistacia resins, myrrh, and other spices, verify ancient information on preparation methods of the dead in Greek and Roman times. These chemical components are thought to have played a prominent role in the mummification mechanism in this particular case. The potential effect of the lead coffin in the mummification process was also examined. Energydispersive X-ray analysis failed to detect lead penetration into the tissues, suggesting that the coffin played a limited role in the preservation of soft tissue.

Link

mtDNA of Tarim mummies

The National Geographic documentary on the Tarim mummies reports on recent mtDNA work on the Tarim mummies. The program doesn't really reveal anything new to anyone familiar with the story of these mummies, but there are some nice segments of some of them as they would have been during their lifetime. At some point, the camera shows what appear to be haplogroup assignments, although I wouldn't vouch as to what these actually mean. or to who exactly they belong. What they do say is that they found markers from "Europe, West Eurasia, Siberia, Tibet, Mongolia, even India". They also mention that the "Beauty of Loulan", the "Boy" have "unexpected marks of East Asian ancestry", and "Cherchen Man" also carries "a surprising East Asian lineage" and that the "Shaman" has a "lineage frequently seen in the Himalayas and India".

Cause of death of Tyrolean Ice Man

It is fascinating how a 5,300-year-old "crime" can be solved using modern forensic technology.

Iceman 'Ötzi's' cause of death proved by researcher at the University of Zurich

An Italian-Swiss research team, including Dr. Frank Rühli of the Institute of Anatomy at the University of Zurich in Switzerland proved the cause of death of the Iceman (“Ötzi,” 3300 BC) by modern X-ray-based technology. A lesion of a close-to-the-shoulder artery has been found thanks to a CT scan or multislice computed tomography, finally clarifying the world-famous glacier mummy’s cause of death. This scientific work appeared online in the Journal of Archaeological Science, published by Elsevier and will be covered in the German and US issues of National Geographic magazine in July.

The Iceman is a uniquely well-preserved late Neolithic glacier mummy, found in 1991 in South Tyrol at 3,210 meters above sea level. He has undergone various scientific examinations, as human bodies are the best source for the study of life conditions in the past as well as the evolution of today’s diseases.

In 2005, the glacier mummy was reinvestigated in South Tyrol by Dr. F. Rühli from the Institute of Anatomy at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, in close collaboration with Dr. Eduard Egarter Vigl of the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy, as well as Drs. Patrizia Pernter and Paul Gostner from the Department of Radiology at General Hospital Bolzano, by state-of-the-art multislice computed tomography (CT).

Analysis of the CT images showed a lesion of the dorsal wall of the left subclavian artery, the artery underneath the clavicle, caused by an earlier, already-detected arrowhead that remains in the back. In addition, a large haematoma could be visualized in the surrounding tissue. By incorporating historic as well as modern data on the survival ship of such a severe lesion, the scientists concluded that the Iceman died within a short time due to this lesion.

“Such obvious proof of a vascular lesion in a body of this historic age is unique, and it helped to determine the cause of this extraordinary death without a destructive autopsy. We look forward to further investigating the circumstances surrounding the Iceman’s sudden death,” explains Dr. Dr. Rühli.

"Celts" in Xinjiang

PhDiva criticizes a despicable Independent article titled "A meeting of civilisations: The mystery of China's celtic mummies". As I noted in a discussion list:

There is no evidence that the Urumqi mummies spoke Celtic languages, or that they were Europeans, or even Indo-Europeans. The DNA evidence can only be used to show that they were of West Eurasian, not European origin. As for their language, none of them have been accompanied, as far as I know, by any writings. It is reasonable that they might have spoken an Indo-European language, although by no means proven.

It is a sad state of affairs that editors allow such misleading information to be published.

One of the many idiotic statements in the article:

The Loulan Beauty, for example, was claimed by the Uighurs as their symbol in song and image, although genetic testing now shows that she was in fact European.

The "Loulan Beauty" may be one of the ancestors of the Uighurs, and she certainly belongs to the archaeological heritage of the region. Thus, it is reasonable and understandable that she will be made a symbol by the current inhabitants, however tenuous the connection.

Even the Slavs of Bulgaria identify with the ancient Thracians, the Turks identify with the Hittites and other extinct Anatolians, the Arabs of Egypt identify with the Egyptians, and the modern Germanic-speaking Britons identify with the "Celts". Such sentiments are understandable, albeit naive.

What is not excusable is to excise a part of Central Asian history and claim that it belongs to Europeans, or even more absurdly to Celts. However, we should perhaps excuse the journalist for his misstep, since he lives in a country where even professional geneticists have consistently oversold their research to a credulous public ready to swallow up stories about "Viking", "Celtic", or "Pictish" origins.

Body size and proportions of Tyrolean Ice Man

J Hum Evol. 2006 Mar 17; [Epub ahead of print]

Body size, body proportions, and mobility in the Tyrolean "Iceman"

Ruff CB et al.

Body mass and structural properties of the femoral and tibial midshafts of the "Iceman," a late Neolithic (5200BP) mummy found in the Tyrolean Alps, are determined from computed tomographic scans of his body, and compared with those of a sample of 139 males spanning the European early Upper Paleolithic through the Bronze Age. Two methods, based on femoral head breadth and estimated stature/bi-iliac (pelvic) breath, yield identical body-mass estimates of 61kg for the Iceman. In combination with his estimated stature of 158cm, this indicates a short but relatively wide or stocky body compared to our total sample. His femur is about average in strength compared to our late Neolithic (Eneolithic) males, but his tibia is well above average. His femur also shows adaptations for his relatively broad body (mediolateral strengthening), while his tibia shows adaptations for high mobility over rough terrain (anteroposterior strengthening). In many respects, his tibia more closely resembles those of European Mesolithic rather than Neolithic males, which may reflect a more mobile lifestyle than was characteristic of most Neolithic males, perhaps related to a pastoral subsistence strategy. There are indications that mobility in general declined between the European Mesolithic and late Neolithic, and that body size and shape may have become more variable throughout the continent following the Upper Paleolithic.

Link

Tyrolean Iceman had mtDNA haplogroup K1

Am J Phys Anthropol. 2006 Jan 19; [Epub ahead of print]

Fine characterization of the Iceman's mtDNA haplogroup.

Rollo F, Ermini L, Luciani S, Marota I, Olivieri C, Luiselli D.

Starting from specimens of the intestinal contents of the so-called Tyrolean Iceman or Otzi (5,350-5,100 years before present), it was possible by polymerase chain reaction to amplify fragments of the human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region that correspond to the sequence found in 1994 at the Munich and Oxford laboratories and which had been attributed to the original DNA of the mummy. The particularly favorable condition of the specimens, showing very low contamination levels, made it easier to extend the analyses to the coding region, which had not previously been considered. The mtDNA of the European population is currently divided into nine (H, T, U, V, W, X, I, J, and K) main groups (haplogroups). The K haplogroup, in particular, is composed of two (K1 and K2) subclusters. The results demonstrate that the Iceman's mtDNA belongs to the K1 subcluster, yet it does not fit any of the three known branches (a, b, and c) into which the K1 subcluster is presently divided. In addition, some other sites, reported to be linked to environmental adaptation or pathologies, were investigated.

Link

DNA from pre-Columbian mummy

The mummy belonged in mtDNA haplogroup B.

Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005 Dec 9; [Epub ahead of print]

Molecular characterization of a pre-Columbian mummy and in situ coprolite.

Luciani S, Fornaciari G, Rickards O, Labarga CM, Rollo F.

The history of Homo sapiens dispersal around the world and inherent interpopulation contacts and conflicts has given rise to several transitions in his relationships with the natural world, with the final result of changes in the patterns of infectious disease (McMichael [2001] Ecosystem Health 7:107-115). Of particular interest, in this context, is the contact between Amerindians and Europeans that started at the end of the 15th century, and the resulting exchange of microbes. We successfully recovered ancient DNA from a pre-Columbian mummy from Cuzco (Peru), radiocarbon-dated to 980-1170 AD, for which consistent mtDNA amplifications and sequences were obtained. The analysis of mtDNA revealed that the mummy's haplogroup was characteristic of Native American populations. We also investigated a sample of feces directly isolated from the intestines of the mummy, using a polymerase chain reaction system designed to detect the broadest spectrum of bacterial DNAs. The analysis of results, following a criterion of "paleoecological consistency" (Rollo and Marota [1998] Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. [Biol.] 354: 111-119), demonstrated that some vestiges of the original microbial flora of the feces were preserved. In particular, we were able to identify the DNA of Haemophylus parainfluenzae, thus suggesting that this recently recognized pathogen was present in precontact Native Americans.

Link

DNA testing of Xinjiang mummies

Genetic testing reveals awkward truth about Xinjiang’s famous mummies

“I spent six months in Sweden last year doing nothing but genetic research,” Mair said from his home in the United States where he teaches at the University of Pennsylvania.

“My research has shown that in the second millennium BC, the oldest mummies, like the Loulan Beauty, were the earliest settlers in the Tarim Basin.

“From the evidence available, we have found that during the first 1,000 years after the Loulan Beauty, the only settlers in the Tarim Basin were Caucasoid.”

East Asian peoples only began showing up in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin about 3,000 years ago, Mair said, while the Uighur peoples arrived after the collapse of the Orkon Uighur Kingdom, largely based in modern day Mongolia, around the year 842.

“Modern DNA and ancient DNA show that Uighurs, Kazaks, Krygyzs, the peoples of Central Asia are all mixed Caucasian and East Asian. The modern and ancient DNA tell the same story,” he said.

Mair hopes to publish his new findings in the coming months.

China has only allowed the genetic studies in the last few years, with a 2004 study carried out by Jilin University also finding that the mummies’ DNA had Europoid genes, further proving that the earliest settlers of Western China were not East Asians.

See also this 2004 study on ancient Central Asians from Kazakhstan which essentially agrees with the content of this story, and a paper on a modern Caucasoid-Mongoloid population from Xinjiang.

Ancient DNA compendium

For easy reference:

Review paper

Cenntral and Northern Asia

Neolithic NE Siberia
Neolithic Siberians
Scytho-Siberian
Cro-Magnon
Pazaryk
More Scytho-Siberian
Central Asia
Neolithic cis-Baikal
Mongolian
Ancient Mongolia
Yakut

Northern Central and Eastern Europe

Germany
Eartly Danish
HIV Bronze Age
Tyrolean Iceman
Neolithic Linearbandkeramik
Viking King
Cumanians

Southern and Western Europe

Neanderthal from Iberia
Pre-Roman Iberian
Basques
Basques
Aldaieta Basques
Medieval al-Andalus
Guanches
Etruscans
Ancient Britons

The Americas

Ancient Peruvians
mt-DNA haplogroup M in North Americans
Native Americans
Pre-Columbian mummy

The Sand Dune Forgotten by Time

Archaeologists working in the extreme desert terrain of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region have moved a step closer to unraveling the mystery of a 40-century-old civilization.

They unearthed 163 tombs containing mummies during their ongoing and long excavation at the mysterious Xiaohe tomb complex.



And it's all thanks to the translation of a diary kept by a Swedish explorer more than 70 years ago.

"We have found more than 30 coffins containing mummies," said Idelisi Abuduresule, head of the Xinjiang Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute and the excavation team.

The complex is believed to contain 330 or so tombs buried in several layers within a 2,500-square-meter sand dune.

"Most of the items are in the original state of the time when they were buried, and that will help reveal a lot of information about the society and life style of the people of that time," said Idelisi, during his trip back from the desert dust and heat to the autonomous region's capital Urumqi to record the finds, and store the artifacts.

The Xiaohe tombs are believed to have been the burial site of the mysterious Loulan Kingdom, which disappeared without historical trace about 15 centuries ago.

Today's archaeologists are following in the footsteps of Swedish explorer Folke Bergman, who in 1934 ventured south along a river in Lop Nur Desert in the eastern part of Xinjiang.

He said on his return that he'd discovered a dune harboring over 1,000 coffins that date back 4,000 years ago.

He named the place Xiaohe (small river) tombs.

But the river he used to navigate to this ancient site dried up and the dune and its tombs were forgotten about for decades.

In the late 1990s, however, Chinese sociologists translated Bergman's records on archaeological exploration in the area into Chinese and the hunt for dune and its mysteries was once again underway.

In addition to burial articles such as bent wooden blocks and straw baskets, Idelisi's team has found in some coffins wooden figures wrapped in leather instead of mummified bodies.

A bird's-eye view of Xiaohe tombs shows the oval-shape dune taking on the appearance of dumpling pricked full of chopsticks.

Above every coffin protrudes two thick wooden stakes, a symbol some believe of ancient worshiping.

"Considering the scale of the burial site and the mysterious cultural signs, the analyses of the relics are going to yield some exciting results," predicted Idelisi.

The State Administration of Cultural Heritage approved excavation of the Xiaohe tombs in 2003.

(China Daily March 19, 2005)

mtDNA of ancient central Asians

An interesting new paper confirms the anthropological and archaeological picture of a westward spread of Caucasoids in Central Asia in early prehistoric times, followed by the spread of Mongoloids in the opposite direction during the 1st millennium BC. The Caucasoid-Mongoloid hybrid population resulting from these interactions is similar in terms of mtDNA with present-day Central Asians with some noted differences (e.g., presence of additional West Eurasian haplogroups). In the ancient samples, West Eurasian haplogroups H, HV, I, T*, T1, U*, U1, U5, U5a1 and W were represented:

• HV sequences have matches in the Central Mediterranean region
• H sequences are split between the common Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS) found in many populations, and two other sequences found in the Central Mediterranean and the Caucasus
• The I sequence is present in a modern Central Asian and also in individuals from the Caucasus
• The W sequence is widespread in West Eurasia
• T* sequences are widespread in Europe, the Near East and the Central Mediterranean region
• T1 is widespread in West Eurasia, but also found sporadically in East Eurasia
• The U1a sequences are found in Turks, Armenians and Caucasians
• The U5a sequence has been found in an Egyptian
• The U5a1 sequence is frequent in the Caucasus and present in Europe, while a different U5a1 was reported previously in Mongolia

The East Eurasian haplogroups belong to A*, M*, M4 and G2:

• The M* sequence was observed in an Indian individual
• The M4 sequence has not been previously reported
• The G2 sequence is found in present-day China and Central Asia
• One A sequence is found in present-day Central Asians and Indians, while the other two have a motif found in a modern Chukchi

Most (78%) of the sequences are of West Eurasian (Caucasoid) origin, but before the 7th c. BC, East Eurasian (Mongoloid) sequences are absent, although they could be present up to 20.6% (p<0.05).

Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2004 May 7;271(1542):941-7. 

Unravelling migrations in the steppe: mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient central Asians.

Lalueza-Fox C et al.

This study helps to clarify the debate on the Western and Eastern genetic influences in Central Asia. Thirty-six skeletal remains from Kazakhstan (Central Asia), excavated from different sites dating between the fifteenth century BC to the fifth century AD, have been analysed for the hypervariable control region (HVR-I) and haplogroup diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the mitochondrial DNA genome. Standard authentication criteria for ancient DNA studies, including multiple extractions, cloning of PCR products and independent replication, have been followed. The distribution of east and west Eurasian lineages through time in the region is concordant with the available archaeological information: prior to the thirteenth-seventh century BC, all Kazakh samples belong to European lineages; while later an arrival of east Eurasian sequences that coexisted with the previous west Eurasian genetic substratum can be detected. The presence of an ancient genetic substratum of European origin in West Asia may be related to the discovery of ancient mummies with European features in Xinjiang and to the existence of an extinct Indo-European language, Tocharian. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the ancient DNA in unravelling complex patterns of past human migrations so as to help decipher the origin of present-day admixed populations.

Link (pdf)